OK, so let's look at organic analysis in a little bit more detail and think about how lipids and proteomic research, which

you know we can see is a little bit separate from.

Inorganic analysis in general, which has been the focus of this course.

And to think about how actually that actually begins to intersect with.

So the traditional arkia materials.

And again, I've said this before, but I think that one of the most important things that we need to be thinking about as archaeologists working in a world which.

Increasingly involved science.

Unscientific analysis in our approaches to answering the questions that were interested, the archaeological questions we're interested in.

That we need to recognize that.

This.

Placing of even of scientific techniques into multiple boxes into chronological research.

Biomolecular research are key materials. Research is.

Becoming unhelpful and that we need to recognize that these these techniques all intersect. They all have ways of contributing equally to a better understanding of the past.

And that applies also to our Q Genetics, which still lies in a field where we perhaps not immediately thinking that has really anything to do with our key materials research.

Now, I'm not going to immediately talk about that. I think that's a discussion which needs to be had.

Over a much longer period than would be possible in an hour of how to build up those kind of connections, but actually thinking about those that sort of intersection of different analytical.

Regions if you like.

Is really something I want you to try to do as you go forward.

Of course, as materials.

We know that there are quite a wide range of organic materials that are being used.

In the past and the analysis of those can tell us something about the way in which people are using their landscapes using the resource is available to them just as much as the analysis of ceramics can, for example.

These of.

Organic organic fibers, organic materials, organic products like leather.

Awul

bark

would and so forth.

No, we can begin to identify those.

And most of that identification you know is probably done initially in the initial stages. If you like by in a sort of.

In the context of Environmental Archaeological Research.

So the identification of word and so forth is going to be done.

In concert with other forms of sort of.

I'm psychology and so forth.

But many of those materials are actually in their own right objects and thinking about how they were made and how we can use analytical techniques to understand that can be really useful.

If we think about things like.

Which are less structurally identifiable?

Once we get into very heavily degraded materials, once we get into processed plant products like resins, waxes and so forth.

Then we have to begin to think about how we might go beyond identifying that the fact that they are organic and identify perhaps where they were being obtained from, and that might help us to understand how they were produced.

These people.

We can think about.

Organic residues as well being helping us to understand questions of diets and the analysis of those materials held within.

Things like ceramics.

Can give us really important insights and represents the most the most obvious. If you like intersection with our key materials, research.

And so that's where we're probably going to focus. Most of the attention today.

So let's think about organic residues, organic materials in organic or inorganic product if you like in ceramics as the sort of starting point is the most common example.

And the first thing to think about is how organic materials can get into.

A vessel.

Onto a stone tool.

Now with stone tools there are, you know you can think about hafting residues. You can think about use where, so you could be looking at residues being associated with a couple of different processes.

Stone tools are relatively non porous, but do preserve.

Some.

Organic compounds on their surfaces.

Then we can look at some look for remnants of blood. We can look for resin.

Traces and so forth.

Ceramics are a little bit, perhaps more complicated in as much as.

The range of possible inputs into those.

Into those systems is rather greater.

And while some of this does apply to surface residues on lipids, it's sort of it's.

You know, we might as well look at it in this sort of more complicated environment 1st and you can apply those things we can think about those things which do crossover for yourselves.

So what we need to think about is in terms of potential inputs and losses to the surface of an object surface vessel.

Into the body of that vessel as well.

And if it starts really as soon as you have your part out of the fire because.

In certain traditions, we can actually apply organic materials while the vessel is still hot to act as Sealants.

So the application of certain plants, certain decoctions of plants, apps, including a variety of different waxes.

Oils.

Applied to the surface interior surface vessel after it's fired, when when it's still hot wheel burn away, leaving behind a a layer of sealant effectively.

We may also use something like pitch one or more sort of.

Substantial way to do the same job and you can see that anyway. If you think about some of the ways of preserving wine, for example, which involves sealing pottery vessels with pitch.

Will leave quite substantial residues of pitch, but are very unlikely to, perhaps to leave much residues of the wine that was in those vessels.

We might also have surface decoration using organic materials after firing.

And those may leave some traces, although that's comparatively rare.

We could potentially study these things, however.

And examples like work in Alaska, where studies of ceramics showing extensive use of seal fat.

Sense of sort of residues of steel fat in relatively low fired sewing vessels has been attributed to.

Process is of.

Mixing and sealing. Mixing with to create a better, stronger vessel before firing, even an sealing afterwards as part of the process of use.

The practices which can be compared with the way vessels are being used ethnographically in those regions.

Once we get into the actual use of a vessel, perhaps the thing which we we think we're going to be most interested in.

We can think about how.

What we're at? What are we actually looking at? Are we looking at?

If we have residue in our vessel, are we looking at the?

Results of a single use. The first use of that vessel that we use. Looking at the average of a certain period of use before the pores in that vessel become.

Sort of clogged with organic material and no longer accept knew.

Inputs.

What are we losing?

Are we getting alteration of those products by, for example heating? Are we getting?

Alteration by

we getting removal of those facts by cleaning. You know how? How can we think about the removal and alteration of materials as in the process of deposition within the strong body?

Once the porch pottery breaks is it put to some other use you know? Do people reuse it or something else? Do they suddenly start using it as?

Papers to scrape animal hides. For example, is that going to change the way we understand those materials? What evidence could we look for? How would we assess whether that was a lightly input into our ceramic system?

Once they buried, are they altered? How would we tell? What could we look for?

Do you have biological alteration microbes eating away or fungi eating away? And we know this happens. We see in some vessels in certain environments you'll see the growth of lichen on the surface of vessels which sit out on the surface for a long time. You will also see potentially fungal hyphae, so those the cells of fungus of.

Fungi growing into ceramic bodies, and as you're looking at them under the SCM for analytics of your primary, perhaps analytical, reasons you may encounter those and that sort of observation could be useful to you if you go on to study the composition of these in terms of their lipids or protein contents.

Do we get leaching of that material out of the aisle? Do we? Are we going to lose some fraction of our residue?

Which is.

Perhaps soluble in water.

Dancers, probably yes to some degree.

Once we get it out of the out of the ground, it's not over because as we get out of the ground, we're putting potentially new material on. There are classic examples of papers published, usually published in sort of.

Collected volumes rather than open papers at the normal journals and open peer review, but there are classic examples where you find.

Lipeta residue analysis identifying.

The presence of fats, which really don't have any business being there in the Bronze Age.

And in some cases that was shown to be not the presence of some exotic perfume factory, but the presence of Suncream as contamination on the surface of the vessels that were analyzed.

Fingerprints glues we really have to think about what the history of the vessels that we're going to analyze is before we can get a real understanding of.

What their composition means.

And are we looking? Are we going to be looking at these in terms of surface residues?

Being

brushed away, you know.

Countless times

you can see that scrubbing on the surface of ceramic vessels, which is result of cleaning how much of the material that we are actually interested in does that remove.

All of these things are the kinds of questions we need to understand if we want to be able to say confidently.

That we have identified a particular residue and it means this.

So in terms of the analytical process for the extraction of residues from ceramics, depending on the.

Or indeed the analysis of.

Materials to study them in terms of proteomics.

We want to be able to extract.

Material I've used 2 examples here. One is the sort of standardized sort of simplified version of a extraction for ceramic residues, and the other is the process you might use if you had a sample, for example full of.

Bone or leather and you want to identify it?

Using proteomics.

And for started you remove material from that and that would be the same for both steps really.

You would want to extract.

The fraction that you're interested in.

And break it up into pieces of fragmentation or fragmentation. Really, you want to extract the collagen. If you're looking at bone, 'cause that's the fraction you're going to be interested in analyzing.

And you want to break it up into individual peptides using trypsin, an enzyme to slice it up, particularly in particular sites very can very consistently.

You want to get rid of as much of.

Any?

Any of the material using to extract that so that you have a concentrated residue that you can then dilute to an appropriate.

Level for your non analytical technique, so you want to be able to.

Very precisely.

Dilute that residue so you know.

And so you can attempt different concentrations until you find the right balance.

And working from a concentrate that's much more straightforward.

One of the in critical things. As with all techniques that we talked about, is standardization.

And with biological techniques, of course, there are a number of things that you have to do in order to ensure data quality and comparability.

One of the things that you will do is to run your samples with sets of blank results. Sort of blank standards which are processed in the same way to ensure that you're not.

Introducing anything by standard practice to your for the result of contamination of your rare reagents, for example, or by simply by your own bad practices. You may be in the way that you're operating.

You may not be working at your best that day, for example, and you might be.

Routinely doing something wrong.

And if you are using blank samples, which should have nothing in them, You should see.

That sort of error creeping in.

The other thing that you could do is to ensure that you're going to run some comparative compatible samples, which you know roughly what they are.

So you're looking to run some external standards if you like.

And with organic analysis really important as well and with many inorganic analysis too. But is the use of internal standards to monitor.

Consistency.

And with.

The kinds of techniques that we're using to analyze organic material that's particularly important.

Because it allows us not only to quantify the amount of material, but with reference to particular substance which has a known quantity.

So we can reference.

That and show in terms of with reference to that peak of note which has a known quantity within our individual dilution. We can understand the concentration of all of our other elements components.

But it also gives us a way of.

Ensuring that we can compare our results.

So there's no differences in terms of the way we're introducing the sample to the system and so forth, which might affect perhaps where a peak is appearing.

On our on our plots so forth terms, it's time.

And the Chinese that we're using for pretty much all of these techniques in the first instance, at least, are it are chromatic graphic. So we're dealing with chromatography, and chromatography is really important for organic materials, because it allows us to do something which really is just essential.

It's to separate out a complex mixture of materials.

To separate out the various different individual organic molecules.

From each other, because whatever we do, even if we only use the pot once for one type of thing.

Even if we only used it to cook some meat.

We would still have not organic material organic organic materials. Meat is a complicated thing. It's not just made of one thing, it's not made of 1 protein, one fatty acid. It's made of a whole range of different fatty acids and we need to be able to pull those apart.

So that we can study and identify them individually.

In chromatography, allows us to do that, and you'll know that from your experience of chromatography general that what you have is what's called a stationary phase.

Anna mobile phase and if you think about paper chromatography.

You're looking at the paper. Is the stationary phase and the mobile phase is whatever solvent you're using.

To put you know your place in your little paper strip.

Remember from school and other sort of experiences, I'm sure you're placing a little paper strip in some solvent or some kind of water, perhaps alcohol, and that mobile phases moving up through that.

Stationary phase and carrying with it.

The pigments.

And it's depositing them ultimately.

At different times, different places on the strip. If you let it run and run it will carry them right up to the top of the Strip and out, and the same is true for chromatography. If we're looking at sort of liquid chromatography.

In a simple way. That's again how it's going to work. You have your chromatography column.

Of some kind.

You

Putting your mixture here and adding.

Some sort of mobile phase, some sort of solvent, and that is carrying.

The material and down through this stationary phase.

And allowing you to actually separate it at the bottom as a liquid.

And the same is true with gas chromatography, except that you're using high pressure gas within a column and the stationary phase is sort of the edges of that column sort of cylinder.

And as the gases carry it through that stationary phase will slow down some molecules more than others.

Volatile molecules will be carried through the column more quickly and others will get kind of caught up on the sides and slowed down.

And the result is something like this.

So you have on the bottom you have time.

And on the Y axis you have relative abundance.

And so in something like this you would have somewhere up here, well separated from any materials which are likely to slightly overlap with some known material known standard, which would give you a peek.

Of an unknown concentration, and by comparing that beat everything else you can workout what this relative abundances in absolute quantitative terms.

So here is a gas chromatography setup and it's attached in this case to a mass spectrometer. So we've talked about how the column is working, so we're getting our gas here. We have our sample which is going to be injected into this gas flow is going to be carried into a column which is heated at high temperature.

300 degrees ish.

And it will carry through its very long column many meters long, and eventually that separation would occur. Dan, the individual compounds will exit the column.

Where they can be passed on to the next phase of analysis. And if we think back to our.

Discussions of mass spectrometry. Few sessions ago you can see that what you're getting is the the, the elements. The compounds will be coming out of this where they can be electron ionized.

And that Electroman Azatian is common tool. Tune through it to do this.

He's going to break apart to some degree. Those those compounds.

It's relatively.



Kind of robust.

And so you're firing electrons at it. Some of those molecules will be will just have electrons stripped off them and will become.

An eye on in that way, others will be broken into pieces.

And So what you'll end up with traveling into your mass analyzer, which is a mass spectrometer quadrupole.

Is a variety a whole cloud of stuff?

Associated with that individual.

Molecule.

The individual bio bio sort of biomolecule, but with a whole range of different mass fragments mastered by looking at their mastercharge ratios by understanding that the way in which organic compounds will fragment and they have their fragment according to particular rules.

Which in this in this context is not important for you to understand. It's important to know that that's what happens, but the result will be a mass spectrum showing all those masses and from.

Our understanding of how how biomolecules will fragment under this under ionization.

Ann and.

Those sort of by understanding those rules we can actually recreate re sort of put together those molecules and understand what they are.

And we can understand quite a lot about them from those processes. We also get a sense of course about where they should be in that sequence. So we're getting from a sort of standard chromatic graphic approach would be to.

Look at the time of illusion, the time at which.

Particular molecule emerges in the column.

And using that to identify them. Which Camino gives us a good sense of what they are should be. But the further step of analyzing those in terms of mass Spectra gives us a very confident identification of those materials beyond sort of a step beyond that.

Original fate, original curve I suggestion if you like.

OK, so how does this help us? Well, in terms of identifying material once it we have our particular.

Mass sort of chromatic gram, and we've analyzed and identified are individual components or individual peaks through.

On my spectrum.

Or the mass spectrum of those peaks. We can begin to understand what the materials who might be looking at are.

What that mixture that complex mixture might actually represent in real terms in terms of it's how it was in in the in the vessel itself, and some materials like fishy product, sort of fit, Marine Fish and River fish also will have very characteristic.

Biomarkers.

Particular facts that are found much more commonly in fish than in other.

Animal or plant products.

You know particular.

Product which will actually be associated. Perhaps in the case of fish with the cooking of fish, those thermal degradation products which have altered those fats but ultimately represent a more robust and more stable perhaps.

Lipid.

Which can allow us to identify not only the presence of fish, but it's.

Processing as well, for example.

For other materials, like animal fats, milk facts for example, we can look at the structure of the various different facts that we have.

Looking at particularly things like.

Particular Biomarkers again for milk or the way in which.

The molecules put together, which is characteristic in various ways.

But for a wide range of materials, it becomes more difficult to understand this directly from the kinds of lipids, perhaps in the degraded residue. In particular, we may be left only with those very common fatty acids which stretch across a wide range of different.

Plant and animal products.

And analyzing those can be difficult. And So what we can do is pair up our chromatic gram on my spectrum with.

An isotope ratio mass spectrometer.

So we've got our gas chromatograph. It's pulling out our individual components.

We are analyzing the number for their mass Spectra and we are understanding not only their their mass Spectra but also their isotopic characteristics.

We're looking at the isotopes of carbon nitrogen.

And.

From that, being able to say little bit more about the likely source or the likely dominant source of for those materials, whether it was.

Question of fish or meat with this question of milk or.

Or something else. Or plant plant products.

And you know this. It has its limitations, but this can be a very powerful addition to that process. Our ability to identify.

Particularly, things like, again people are very good at identifying fish in general, and plants and so forth had a little bit less.

Success although we can of course identify plants through looks. Looking at waxes and a variety of characteristic fatty esters as well, I meant to mention so. Here's just one example from some of the work we're doing at the moment. This is a series of vessels early uses of pottery.

And there's been a long debate about the role of Pottering in sort of in society and the dominant understanding of that has been that it's associated with fish.

And for a long time it was said that it was only really associated fish across much of Northern Eurasia. The early phase of pottery use pottery was only really used for Fish, and that's always seemed very unlikely to me, and some work that I did during my PhD showed that in fact.

Many of the signals we were getting in terms of biomarkers looked like fish was absent, but the difficulties of looking at very degraded fatty acids and potentially looking for small components.

Within within a broader spectrum of use.

Were quite great, so we decided to use this. These techniques of isotope ratio mass but sort of individual single compound.

I I celebration my spectrometry to look for evidence to see if we could support this one way or another to look for either support for the idea that this was being used for meat or to reject it by the identification of Fishy Isotopes. Maybe like and you can see here that this.

Pattern.

You're here like this is.

Ah.

The range of samples is falling below a cutoff point in the.

The ratios between particular groups of fatty acids in terms of their Delta C 13.

Isotope

here too, it's falling within particular ranges and you can see the Rangers here up on this side. So you got ruminants non ruminants freshwater.

And here splitting further between those groups.

Non ruminants and ruminants so it's falling very strongly in that sort of meaty area. That convincing results, and one which in allows us to move the discussion forward in terms of what that means for understanding of the materials and combine it with work done on.

Patrol giesing, petrography using questions are studying the movements of communities around the landscape with reference to the fact that we now know that they're using their vessels for robot predominantly meat, and that may change the way we're looking to interpret their particular lifestyle, their particular movements sequence within the landscape.

That's just one example. We could choose many, many, many, many examples from the literature and the kinds of questions we are asking.

Really depends.

And to determine how we go back addressing and answering them.

And there's a great table here, pulled from the.

Historic England.

Manual for the study of lipid residues.

She is very much worth reading and going through in detail because what it gives you.

Is.

A really clear.

View of how different scales of question different.

Regions of light. Areas of interests lead to different kinds of techniques of analytical choices.

And in this case for.

Lip addressed use, but we could apply the same strategy in terms of presenting the way we are understanding. Analysis could talk about other kinds of analysis. Inorganic analysis in very similar ways.

It's worth bearing in mind when you're looking at understanding how you want to address your questions in archaeology.

Now organic analysis, although dating, is not our focus in this study, organic residues can theoretically or will theoretically be contributing a lot to understand a chronology in the future.

And the ability to directly date.

Material culture.

And particularly pottery styles through the lipids and proteins and.

Organic materials found within them.

Is really significant.

It's for a long time. This was sort of pie in the Sky thinking, but there's a new publication out in nature earlier in April, actually, which shows that this is now.

Becoming a real thing Bristol have developed a technique for doing this and it looks like this will really change the sort of face of archaeological dating.

In the near future.

We'll see how to do what extent, but it's very much worth looking into just to make you aware that it has the potential of avoiding things like reservoir effects if we can date only components from terrestrial fats.

Within our lipid residues, then we can step past.

The long and knotty discussion of reservoir.

Effects in particular periods in particular regions, and so forth.

The other thing that lipids of course allow us to do is.

Overlap networks of exchange we can look at the composition of vessels ceramics in terms of their inorganic origins and compare that.

To the likely origins of particular characteristic products.

Whether that's in terms of wine oil resins.

And so forth.

Have the potential to be identifiable and connect Connectible If you like to particular regions of production and that can help us again thinking about overlaying different layers of interpretation.

So proteomics.

Looking at the study of proteins, we need to think about just a couple of basic understandings of what we're dealing with here. You're thinking about.

A really complex, complicated quaternary protein structure is, you know, like can we think of it like a paragraph?

And breaking that down into smaller parts.

Can help us to understand.

What that original structure might have been?

That means it's such large, complicated molecules can be difficult to study and can already be quite graded and breaking it down in a variety of different ways allows us to get at its component parts to break it into pieces that we can begin to analyze more effectively.

And the way in which this is done is through mass spectrometry. Again, but because proteins often fragment into.

Mass fragments or with very similar mass to charge ratios. It requires an extra step and extra separation.

To help to distinguish them and allow them to be quantified effectively.

And what?

The way this is done is by a process called tandem mass spectrometry, which is effectively.

Feeding one mass spectrum, Mr metric, the output of 1 mass spectrometer directly into another.

Sort of as it's complicated process and technically technically, but in terms of our incentives, as simple as that, you would just simply pushing it through two setups.

The first stage will be some sort of chromatography usually, and with proteins it's usually liquid chromatography and then, as I say, several stages of mass spectrometry.

Which allows us to detect the individual masses of water known as peptides. Some of those, some of those smaller units of those proteins which we can obtain from a variety of sources, and we can use those peptides to identify a range of things we can use it in a similar way to lipids. This is sort of A.

That's the word I've lost it completely.

A way of contributing similar information to the same problem so we can ask. We can ask questions about diets about residues of proteins together with lipid fat. So if we had identified, for example.

Indications of dairy fat within our material. You might think about using proteomics.

To understand what kind of dairy fats we're looking at.

The way in which different animals produce their proteins is very subtly often.

But it's very subtly different.

And so you're looking at very small variations between.

Amino acid structures which allow us to distinguish between cow, sheep, goat, even in some cases and which can help us to understand how really in detail how people are using their environment.

There's a whole range of ways this can be applied to biological materials to like human teeth and so forth, but that's not really the sort of focus of this course looking for traces of disease and looking again for traces of diet. Things like dental calculus, great ways of looking at it, like the dental health, know the dentals of environment, the mouth environment of of people in the past, which can tell us a lot about their lifestyles.

What this also does in the analysis of individual proteins and our understanding of sort of libraries of.

The component peptides of a particular protein of a particular protein in a particular animal, for example collagen, by understanding how what peptides will be produced when collagen is broken from a particular is broken down into its peptides.

We can build libraries.

With which we can compare.

Really successfully, that detailed proteomic analysis, with more how should I say rough and ready techniques? If you like more kind of techniques which are very much less intensive in lab time but can yield amazing results, and one of these really, really applicable to archaeological materials is what's called the zooms zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry.

And what we're able to do with Zooms is we're taking on known.

Protein sequence from databases which have been reconstructed from our detailed proteomic.

Analysis we've got from that. We've got predicted peptides which are being which are being predicted on the basis of where trypsin, the enzyme that we're going to use to break up our sample is going to cut them, an enzyme which will attack particular connections between amino acids.

Anne Anne.

We're going to end up with a very good predicted mass spectrum for.

A material.

And we can compare that with what we actually get from a technique like Zooms, which is breaking up and studying peptides to in a very rapid but very efficient way.

Then we can compare the kinds of variety of peptides that we're seeing.

With that library specimen.

When they match up.

Great, we means we can identify pretty confidently the kind of animal we're dealing with and this is provided. This is this. Sorry, this works.

By what's called Maldi. Time of Flight Spectrometry.

And.

I'm going to have to remember what it stands for. It's a matrix.

Assisted laser desorption ionization. Time of flight mass spectrometry.

Some muscle and what that means is we're getting our laser we are.

With the assistance of a matrix is being oblated.

Into 20 pieces that's being ionized by deprotonation, and those individual pieces are pinging up.

Through here into this sort of.

Column towards our detector.

They're being attracted up through here, accelerating up over significant space.

And in that space they have time to separate effectively into small.

Be small particles, small fragments and larger ones.

It's sort of a simple as that. In many systems this is combined with an ion merited to double the distance so they can separate more effectively.

So they sort of reflected back to the detector somewhere else.

But the principle is the same you are.

A bloating and ionizing.

That is being sent, zooming up into our.

Instruments.

Which, as a result of the time of flight.

As the name suggests.

Is going to tell us something about that material?

And so.

That's the basic principle of the technique, but it gives us a really, really interesting way of working. As archaeologists. You'll have seen perhaps this being used in the sorting of bone material from pallet excites some middle to early prolific sites looking at sort of middle pallet excited today in Central Asia, particularly the famous work that's been done recently at Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains.

Where tiny fragments of bones, UN identifiable by traditional means are being studied and identified to pull out pieces associated with or to understand the formal range in The Cave, but also to understand tiny pieces and recognize human or common in individuals.

And the results of this. These analysis published widely have shown you know.

Huge. The benefits of this technique.

Identification of individual.

Human individuals who can then be studied through other means through genetics and so forth.

But from archaeological materials it has equal value.

You know we can study degraded samples which are otherwise.

On Characterizable

to say that what we have in this case is rather nice bag, but whose surface was too degraded to do microscopic analysis of.

We're seeing these of goats goat leather as all applique on a horse horse, horse, leg are horse leather bag.

We're also able to start to identify.

The threads that are being used to stitch them together or in this case it came from an animal that came from some animal that isn't in our database.

A very unusual situation which needs to be somewhat further explained, but it gives us an insight into what people are choosing for different materials. In many cases these makes good sense. Go letter letter is thinner, makes good applicator. Also there is good and sturdy. Makes a good bag, but it can help us to really identify that that is definitely happening.

In the case of this example, what we're looking at here is the use of zooms too.

Confirm or to explain.

Anomalous results so here a dating result from a bronzey site. This is a piece of bone armor.

Should be dated about the end of the third Millennium BC beginning of the second dates to 18,000 BC. Zooms confirms this piece of mammoth bone.

Raising interesting questions about how people are going about obtaining materials.

For their products in the past, now this is recovered materials long, long dead by the time is made into a piece of armor.

And looks at how we can begin to understand.

Connections in terms of technological practices.

One of the first examples, one of the most sort of test cases for this analysis, was also one which showed up how.

Little material is needed to do this kind of analysis.

And it was work done out of York University on.

Manuscripts medieval manuscripts looking at the range of materials being used to create them, the range of animals being employed.

And here you're looking at non destructive samples, effectively being taken by rubbing using a plastic rubber plastic eraser, rubbing away the surface.

Both a.

Leather or cotton vellum documents.

And that was enough to pull away.

Loose leaf bound strands of collagen off the surface of the material doing absolutely no damage to it at all. No visible damage whatsoever, but the minimum out of steel and then that is then being processed in the laboratory to extract the collagen and analyze it.

They're really extraordinary pieces of.

Analytical work.

So that gives you a basic introduction to organic analysis. Do you look into it further if you have time, recommend that and it's something as I say, we have to be thinking about how we begin to combine these different fields of analysis to develop a more coherent.

Sort of new way of studying are key materials, thanks.